Editing Water supply and sanitation in South Africa (section)

==History and recent developments==
[[File:Joburg top.jpg|thumb|250px|The skyline of Johannesburg's [[Central Business District (Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] as seen from the observatory of the [[Carlton Centre]]]]

During Apartheid, the national government had no role in providing public water or sanitation services.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/|title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa|date=2009|website=wp.wpi.edu|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-17}}</ref>

The history of the water supply and sanitation sector since the end of Apartheid has been characterised by a strong government commitment to increase access to services and a gradual reduction of the role of Water Boards and the national government in service provision.<ref name=":2" />

There has been tension between the goal of increased cost recovery enshrined in the Water Services Act on the one hand, and the constitutional rights introduced in 1996 and the policy of free basic water introduced in 2001 on the other hand. There have been a number of controversies on policies in the sectors, including about private sector participation, which was introduced in the mid-1990s, the practice of cutting off water or installing flow restrictors for those who do not pay their bills, and the installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html |date=18 December 2007 }}</ref>

===Transition===
In 1994, the first post-Apartheid government assigned the [[Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (South Africa)|Department of Water Affairs and Forestry]] the task of ensuring that all South Africans would have "equitable access to water supply and sanitation". To that end, the Community Water Supply and Sanitation Program was created to target key areas for instituting water and sanitation systems, and the National Sanitation Program was established to increase the rate of distribution of water and sanitation services.<ref name=":1" />

The passing of the [[Constitution of South Africa|Constitution of the Republic of South Africa]] in 1996 created a new, constitutional dispensation with a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among those rights are the section 24(a) right to an environment that is not harmful to health or well-being, and the section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" />

The government also created new policies such as the Water Services Act, the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, and the National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water and sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" />

===Water Services Act of 1997===
In 1994 the government published its first [[White Paper]] on Water and Sanitation Policy, which led to the Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref>

The Act calls for higher cost recovery, which proved a challenge due to widespread poverty and a culture of non-payment for water in many [[Township (South Africa)|Townships]], as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[water tariff]]s and rigorous cut-offs for non-payment, or flow reductions through the installation of "tricklers" that allow only a very limited flow of water, imposed hardships on the poorest.

The Act also modified the role of Water Boards, providing a clear legal definition of the functions of Water Boards and municipalities. Water Boards have historically been the only bulk water providers. Municipalities were obliged to buy water through them. The Act allowed municipalities to develop their own bulk water supply infrastructure or to buy bulk water from providers other than Water Boards. Conversely it also allowed Water Boards to provide retail water services at the request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since the Act has been passed the capacity of both Water Boards and many water service providers has increased significantly.

===Municipal Systems Act of 2000===
The Municipal Systems Act (MSA) placed the responsibility for water services on local governments. It thus became each city's responsibility to provide basic water and sanitation services for all residents. The funding for improvements to water and sanitation systems would come from the national government via the Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG or Equitable Shares, or via local revenue collection.

===Free Basic Water Policy===
Durban was the first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water in 1998.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web|last=Mary Galvin|title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy|url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/|access-date=26 February 2014|date=6 June 2012}}</ref> After [[Thabo Mbeki]] became President of South Africa in 1999 and a cholera outbreak occurred in 2000, the [[African National Congress]] promised free basic water during a municipal election campaign in December 2000. In July 2001 free basic water became a national policy through a revised tariff structure that included at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day for a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day for a family of eight). The policy was being implemented gradually within the means of each municipality.

===Management contract for Johannesburg and pre-paid meters===
'''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building on earlier experiences with private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract for water services in [[Johannesburg]], South Africa's largest city and the country's economic and financial hub, was awarded in 2000 to the [[Joint Venture]] Water and Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). The Johannesburg management contract was not renewed when it expired in 2005. However, private operators continue to provide services in many other South African cities.

'''Prepaid meters.''' 170,000 prepaid meters were installed in poor townships of Johannesburg, including in [[Soweto]]. Prepaid meters were also installed in other cities as part of management contracts with private operators. These meters, which cut off water supply above the 6 cubic meter monthly limit if no payment is made, sparked substantial protests in poor neighbourhoods. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood in Soweto, sued against prepaid meters with the support of South African and international anti-privatisation activists in what has been called the Mazibuko case, named after the first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref>

In April 2008 the South African High Court found the practice of prepaid meters in Soweto unconstitutional, and wrote that denying the poor access to adequate water "is to deny them the rights to health and to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, the judge stated that "25 liters per person per day is insufficient for the residents of Phiri", and ordered the city to provide free basic water in the amount of 50 liters per person per day with the option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) for more use. The Court apparently assumed a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute"/>

In October 2009 the Constitutional Court overturned the case and declared prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> The court case led to the development of a more social practice concerning prepaid meters. For example, the minimum amount can be increased from 6&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> per month to 10 or even 15&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup> per month depending on the level of poverty and size of a household. Also, new prepaid meters still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after service is cut off. Furthermore, 1000 liter of "emergency water" can be used four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if bills should not have been paid. 2000 liter of additional water can be granted by local authorities on demand for special needs. However, not all residents are aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web|last=Aubriot|first=Julie|title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue)|work=La lettre du pS-Eau|url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1|access-date=12 April 2012|page=13|date=December 2011}}</ref>

===Basic Sanitation White Paper===
In response to the fact that access to sanitation lags significantly behind access to water, the government published its White Paper on Basic Household Sanitation in 2001.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> It called for universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, with priority accorded to communities with the greatest needs. The policy outlines the roles of the various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – and establishes coordination and monitoring mechanisms.

It also calls for Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments in sanitation. The paper notes that it is the government's policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but does not spell out how this policy will be implemented in the case of basic sanitation.

===Decentralisation===
Following a second White Paper on water supply and sanitation policy published in 2002 (after the first White Paper in 1994) a national policy was established to further decentralise the sector, phasing out the national government's involvement in service provision, limiting DWAF's role to policy and regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref>

In rural areas this policy of decentralisation has been supported by the '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach linked to budget-based donor support for rural water supply and sanitation. The initial investment was ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) with a focus on the three poorest provinces and a target to reach about 2.5 million people. A 2004 evaluation by the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa showed that the program performed well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> The program is now in its third phase.

===National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme and Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy===
In February 2005 the government launched a programme to eradicate the use of [[bucket toilet]]s. Bucket toilets consist of a bucket placed under a toilet seat; in formally established settlements the buckets are emptied on a daily basis by the municipality and the content is brought to a [[sewage treatment plant]]. However, buckets are also used in newly established informal settlements. There were 250,000 bucket toilets in formally established settlements as of 2005. There was a strong political will to carry out the program. As of March 2008, 91% of the bucket toilets were replaced by [[flush toilet]]s or Ventilated Improved [[Pit latrine|Pit Latrines]] where water was not readily available.<ref>{{cite web|last=Duncan Mara|title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa|url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html|access-date=16 December 2012|date=30 September 2008}}</ref>

However, communities resisted the construction of latrines, forcing construction to a standstill and asked for flush toilets. There had been no community participation in the choice of technologies. The programme was very much focused on the provision of infrastructure, with little emphasis on sustainability and hygiene promotion, so that the health impact was limited. The deadline to complete the program was moved from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi|title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa|url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf|access-date=16 December 2012|year=c. 2008}}</ref><ref name=SERI>{{cite web|last=Tissington|first=Kate|title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice|url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156|publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI)|access-date=16 December 2012|pages=60–67|date=July 2011}}</ref>

In August 2005 a National Sanitation Strategy was published. It covers, among other things, "the roles and responsibilities in sanitation delivery, planning for sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating the sanitation sector, and monitoring and evaluation". It was followed by a Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy in March 2009, with the aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, the strategy was "deliberately vague" because the issue of free provision of sanitation services is so controversial. There is no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. The implementation strategy includes eight different options to channel subsidies. The policy was piloted in 17 municipalities in 2010, and in a further 23 municipalities in 2011, although it is unclear which subsidy mechanism is being used.<ref name=SERI/>

===Partnerships===
South Africa has formed partnerships and engaged in discussions with several nations, including [[Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web|url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program|title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation|date=|website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]|access-date=12 February 2025}}</ref> the [[Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web|url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf|title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector|date=7 December 2024|website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]|access-date=12 February 2025}}</ref> and [[Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web|url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/|title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA|date=6 July 2023|author-first=Tali|author-last=Feinberg|website=South African [[Jewish Report]]|access-date=12 February 2025}}</ref> to enhance its water supply and sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engaged in a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' with Denmark in 2015, focusing on strengthening water resilience and preparing for water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika"/> It signed a ''Blue Deal'' agreement with the Netherlands in 2020 to support water management and facilitate the exchange of knowledge and experience.<ref name="dws"/> Additionally, South Africa engaged with high-level water delegations from [[Israel]] in 2023 to learn from its success in water sustainability and agricultural development in [[arid]] environments<ref name="sajr"/>

===List of ministers in charge of water===
Ministers of Water Affairs and Forestry
* Dr. [[Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999)
* [[Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004)
* [[Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006)
* [[Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009)

Ministers of Water and Environmental Affairs:
* [[Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010)
* [[Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014)

Ministers of Water and Sanitation:
* [[Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018)
* [[Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019)

Ministers of Human Settlements, Water and Sanitation
* [[Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019)